"SER" AND "ESTAR."


Ser is used as a true auxiliary, when it forms the passive voice.

Estar is an auxiliary when it forms the progressive tenses, as

Estoy escribiendo (I am writing).
Estaba escribiendo (he was writing).

The difficulty in the employment of ser and estar is, by some,
unduly magnified. Others give the following rule--

Ser denotes a permanent state.
Estar "temporary"

This rule should not be adopted because often it would not apply, as the
following two examples will show--

Él es soldado porque se ha alistado por dos años: He is a soldier as he
has enlisted for two years.

Aquellos montes están eternamente cubiertos de nieve: Those mountains
are perpetually covered with snow.

The following simple and true rules will enable the student to
understand the difference between ser and estar and to apply them
correctly.


Ser is used--

1. To form the Passive Voice, as--

El cartero trajo las cartas--Active: The postman brought the letters.

La carta fué traída[114] por el cartero--Passive[115]: The letter was
brought by the postman.

[Footnote 114: The Past Part. following "Ser" and "Estar" agrees in
gender and number with the subject of these verbs.]

[Footnote 115: Este cuarto es barrido todos los días (this room is swept
every day) is passive voice, because we speak of the action of sweeping,
viz., somebody sweeps the room every day. Este cuarto está barrido--no
voice; "barrido" is used as an adjective to denote state or
condition.]

2. To denote an inherent[116] quality, as--

La nieve es blanca: Snow is white.
El hombre es mortal: Man is mortal.

[Footnote 116: Inherence  a fixed state of being in another body. A
quality may be inherent "for the time being," as: Juan se ha alistado por
dos años, entonces es soldado: John has enlisted for two years, then he
is a soldier.]


Estar is used to denote--

1. State in locality, viz., to be in a place, as--

Estoy aquí I am here.
Londres está en Inglaterra: London is in England.

2. A condition, as--

Estoy candado: I am tired.
Está enfermo: He is ill.


SUPPLEMENTARY RULES.

Ser must be used--

1. Before any noun (even if an adjective or article intervenes), as--

Soy negociante: I am a merchant.

Es un corredor de cambios bien conocido: He is a well-known exchange
broker.

Son buenos valores: They are good securities.

2. When "to be" is used to denote possession, as--

Los trapiches son de estos fabricantes: The sugar mills belong to these
makers.

3. When "to be" us used impersonally, as--

Es necesario tomar medidas legales: It is necessary to take legal
proceedings.

4. Before the words "Feliz," "Infeliz," "Pobre," and "Rico."[117]

[Footnote 117: These are not, strictly speaking, "inherent qualities,"
but they are spoken of as such.]


Estar must, of course, be always used before Present Participles,[118]
as--

Está activando sus esfuerzos: He is making still further efforts.
Estamos extendiendo nuestras relaciones: We are extending our connection.

[Footnote 118: A Pres. Part. can only express a condition, not a
quality.]



Verbs ending in cer, cir, ger and gir change the c into z
and the g into j before a or o as--


+----------------------+-----------------------+
|    Vencer (to win)   |  Dirigir (to direct)  |
+----------------------+-----------------------+
|Pres. Indic.,  venzo  |    dirijo             |
|Pres. Subj.,   venza  |    dirija             |
+----------------------+-----------------------+

Verbs ending in guir and quir change the gu into g and the qu
into c before a or o, as--

+-------------------------+-------------------------+
|       Distinguir        |   Delinquir[119]        |
|       (to distinguish)  |(to commit a delinquency)|
+-------------------------+-------------------------+
|Pres. Indic.,  Distingo  |   Delinco               |
|Pres. Subj.,   Distinga  |   Delinca               |
+-------------------------+-------------------------+

[Footnote 119: The only verb ending in quir.]


     VOCABULARY.

acabar de to have just
accesorio accessory
activo y pasivo assets and liabilities
antiguo old, ancient
avería particular, particular average
balance balance, balance sheet
bastar to suffice, to be enough
biela connecting rod
caldera boiler
cilindros cylinders
citar to quote, to mention a passage
*convenir to agree, to suit
cotizar to quote prices
cuenta de ganancias y pérdidas profit and loss account
dejar to leave, to let
disposición (á su) (at your) disposal
durar to last
el engranaje the gearing
entregar to deliver
equipo equipment
es decir, ó sea viz., namely
á saber viz., namely
franco de porte carriage paid
grifo cock (machinery)
hasta la fecha (made up) to date
huelga strike
imprevisto unforseen
á la izquierda to the left
llegar á ser to become, to contrive to be
*mantenerse to be maintained
máquina machine, engine
mercerizar to mercerize
para con towards
transporte seguido carriage forward
porte pagadero al destino carriage forward
presentar to present
proveer to provide
provisto (proveído) provided
semejante similar
*sentir to be sorry, to feel
sin embargo however
soportes, coginetes bearings
tornillos screws
transporte pagado carriage paid
tubos tubes
válvula valve
el volante the fly-wheel
y pico (veinte y pico etc.), odd, (twenty odd, etc.)


                            EXERCISE 1 (33).

Translate into English--

1. La marca (the make) de estas máquinas y calderas es una de las más
antiguas.

2. Son fabricadas en Inglaterra por los Srs. Fulano y Cía.

3. Están aquí para su inspección y están todas provistas de sus
accesorios: cilindros, volantes, bielas, soportes, engranajes, válvulas
y tornillos.

4. ¿No se fabrican también en Francia máquinas semejantes?

5. Sí, Señor, estas á la izquierda son francesas y son buenas máquinas.

6. Es cierto sin embargo que las inglesas son mejores y que están en
primera línea en la industria mundial.

7. Los Srs. Fulano y Cía. han llegado á ser los primeros entre los
constructores que han comprendido que se podían entregar máquinas
excelentes á un precio relativamente bajo.

8. Para no citar más que un ejemplo de la importancia de esta casa
basta decir que son suyas las 1,000 máquinas y
pico que se han exportado últimamente para Italia y la Argentina.

9. Soy feliz de saberlo.

10. Son fabricantes ricos y al mismo tiempo generosos para con los que
son pobres é infelices.

11. Compraré diez fardos de Estampados Mercerizados si me los deja V. á
5-3/16 d. por yarda.

12. Está bien; ¡está convenido!


                            EXERCISE 2 (34).

Translate into Spanish--

1. We have just received your Price List, but we are sorry to say your
prices are too dear.

2. The cylinders and boilers are now ready.

3. Every engine is sent out with its complete equipment, viz., tubes,
valves, cocks, etc.

4. The Directors are preparing a balance sheet to be laid before (para
presentar á) the company at the next ordinary general meeting.

5. It will show the assets and liabilities and a profit and loss account
made up to date.

6. There will also be a report on the position and transactions of the
company.

7. It is your action which has done us more harm (daño) than anything
else (cualquier otra cosa[120]).

8. It is we (somos nosotros) who are tired of our agreement (convenio).

9. The goods are at your disposal.

10. We think the shares will be inactive (flojas).

11. The demand for steel, iron and copper was very steady (firme) but it
is probable that it will not last.

12. Are you rich? No, I am poor but I am happy.

13. Our quotations will be maintained except in case of strikes or other
unforeseen circumstances.

14. The four bales of linens will be delivered to you carriage paid, but
the boilers and (y sus) accessories you will receive (los recibirán)
carriage forward.

15. The whole (todo) will be insured with particular average.

[Footnote 120: Or: que nada más.]